IP Address and Call Records

1. IP Address as an Evidence :
2.  IP address alone I feel cannot be a conclusive evidence and I have proved in many cases in lower courts .
3.  • Judge Gary Brown in the United States District Court of the Eastern District of New York adjudged below : 
4. • "The assumption that the person who pays for Internet access at a given location is the same individual who allegedly downloaded a single sexually explicit film is tenuous, and one that has grown more so over time," he writes. "An IP address provides only the location at which one of any number of computer devices may be deployed, much like a telephone number can be used for any number of telephones."
5.  • "Thus, it is no more likely that the subscriber to an IP address carried out a particular computer function – here the purported illegal downloading of a single pornographic film – than to say an individual who pays the telephone bill made a specific telephone call," . Adv Prashant Mali - Cyber Law Expert (prashant.mali@cyberlawconsulting.com)
6. CDR(Call Data Records) as an Evidence :
7. Today Investigation agencies gets paralyzed when a accused doesn’t use Mobile phone.as the investigation starts majorly around CDR. 
8. • Call Data Records do aid in preliminary investigation but cannot be taken as conclusive evidence because of following problems 1. The mobile handset or SIM could be on someone else name, as written in receipt/invoice. 2. Call Data Records are not certified 3. SIM card was cloned or IMEI number Spoofed(changed) 4. Mobile Number snooping had taken place using S/W In Bombay Bomb Blast case Sanjay Dutt CDR were admitted and the same were in Parliament Attack case Adv Prashant Mali - Cyber Law Expert 

Expert

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Salary for Computer Forensics Expert

Average Salary for Certification: Computer Hacking Forensic Investigator (CHFI)

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UNIX

Linux Programming: Unit-1 Topics

1. Introduction to UNIX operating system:  History of unix, features of unix,  architecture of unix, kernal functions, shell functions
2. General purpose utilities:  date, cal, bc, expr, who, who am i ,w, finger, echo,   script, tty, printf, logname, uname, passwd,
3.File Handling Utilities: creating files, renaming files, copying files, moving files, deleting files,directory related commands------- pwd,mkdir,cd,rmdir,ls,cat,cp,rm,mv,cmp,comm,diff,find,file
4. Security by file permissions:  file permissions, directory permissions, types of users, changing permissions using chmod command , changing owner using chown, changing  group using chgrp, umask command
5. Process Utilities:  ps, kill, nice, &, nohup,at, batch, crontab, time, job control- bg,fg,jobs ctrl z,jobs, kill,
6. Backup utilities:  cpio, tar
7. Network Related commands: telnet, arp, ftp, rlogin
8. Filters: cat,head, tail, wc, more, pg, pr, tr, cut , paste, sort, join, uniq, grep family
9 Text processing utilities: 
10sed command: scripts,opeartion, addresses, commands, applications
11awk command: execution, fields and records, scripts, operation, patterns, actions, functions, using   system command

Multiplexing

Multiplexing

Multiplexing is a technique for sending more than one information signal at a time down a single communication path(e.g. medium, circuit or channel). Multiplexing is sometimes loosely referred to as MANY into ONE.

The multiplexed signal is transmitted over a communication channel, which may be a physical transmission medium. The multiplexing divides the capacity of the low-level communication channel into several higher-level logical channels, one for each message signal or data stream to be transferred. A reverse process, known as demultiplexing, can extract the original channels on the receiver side.

A device that performs the multiplexing is called a multiplexer (MUX), and a device that performs the reverse process is called a demultiplexer (DEMUX).

Multiplexing can be achieved in a number of ways. The following three will be covered in this class:

1. Space Division Multiplexing
2. Frequency Division Multiplexing
3. Time Division Multiplexing
4. Code division multiplexing.

 

Frequency Division Multiplexing

 In FDM, the frequency bandwidth of the line is divided into a number of partitions, each of which is used as a separate logical channel. Radio and TV broadcasting represent the oldest examples of FDM. To avoid neighboring channels from interfering with one another, the extreme ends of the channel frequencies are left unused to provide a gap. For example, a line that has a bandwidth of 30 kHz can be divided into 3 times 10 kHz channels, each of which consists of 8 kHz of bandwidth for data and two gaps of 1 kHz on either side. FDM requires special multiplexing/demultiplexing hardware (MUX) at either end of the line.

Space Division Multiplexing

When we want to transmit multiple messages, the goal is maximum reuse of the given resources: time and frequency. . It involves grouping many separate wires into a common cable enclosure. A cable that has, for example, 50 twisted pairs inside it can support 50 channels. There is therefore a one-to-one correspondence between physical and logical channels.

SDM has the unique advantage of not requiring any multiplexing equipment. It is usually combined with other multiplexing techniques to better utilize the individual physical channels.

 

 For example If there are six people in the office and they all want to talk at the same time, there obviously will be some interference between the conversations taking place. To reduce the interference they may divide themselves into three groups of two, such that the conversation is between each pair of people. If the pairs continue talking whilst sitting next to each other, the interference would still be present.

The best way for each pair to converse with minimal interference would be to sit a few feet away from the other pairs (within the same room) and converse. They would still be sharing the same medium for their conversations but the physical space in the room would be divided for each conversation. This is an example of SPACE DIVISION MULTIPLEXING.

History of Mobile Communication

History of Mobile Communication

What is Cell phone:

A cellular phone is a portable telephone that does not use a wired connection. It connects to a wireless carrier network using radio waves.

A cellular phone network uses a number of short-range radio transmitter-receivers to communicate simultaneously with many cellphones over a large area.

The wireless network is connected to the public telephone system, another wireless carrier network or the Internet for completing calls to another phone or to a computer.

To use a cell phone, need to buy a handset (or mobile communications device) and sign up with a wireless service provider for a calling plan.

Handsets are sold at retail outlets, electronics stores, wireless service dealers and Web-based retailers. Handsets come in a wide variety of styles, sizes, screens, keypads, software and capabilities.

Most cell phones have a color screen for easier navigation and use. Most cell phones can exchange text messages with other mobile devices or e-mail addresses. More advanced phones play games, take digital photographs, access the Internet, have personal digital assistant (PDA) functions, and play music.

History  of cellular  mobile communication:
         The history of wireless follows following hierarchy.After the second world war many national and International projects in the area of wireless communications were triggered off.
 In ancient times the light was modulated either ON or OFF pattern used for wireless communication.Flags were used to signal code words.Smoke signals were used in wireless communication as early as 150 BC.

 In 206 BC Radio transmission was introduced.

 In 1794, Claude Chappe invented Optical Telegraph for long distance wireless communication

 In 1834 – 1874 Philip Reis discovered the Telephone Principle.

 In 1886,Heinrich Hertz demonstrate the wave character of electrical transmission through space.

 In 1906, vaccum tube were invented by Robert Von Lieben.

 In 1937, Guglielmo Marconigave the wireless telegraphy.

 The first network in Germany was , analog A.Netz – in 1958 with 160MHz carrier frequency.

 In 1972 ,the B.Netz followed in Germany using the same 160MHz, here the current location of the mobile receiver should be known.

 In 1981, Nordic Mobile Telephone System(NMT) has been developed with 450MHz carrier.

 In 1982, Inmarsat A satellite has been launched.

 In 1984, Cordeless Telephone(CT1) following  its  Predecessor the CT0 from 1980

 In 1987, CT2 was developed which uses the spectrum at 864MHz and offers a data channel at a rate of 32 Kb/Sec.

 In 1991, ETSI adopted the standard Digital European Cordless Telephone(DECT) for digital cordless telephony with a spectrum of 1880 – 1900 MHz.Now it is renamed as Digital enhanced cordless telecommunications.At that time Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) also enhanced.

 During 1992, Global System for Mobile communication (GSM) was standardized.

 In 1994, GSM-1800 networks in Europe also known as DCS 1800 (Digital Cellular System) started with a better quality.

 In 1996, HiperLAN (High Performance Radio LAN) whish is standardized by ETSI.

 In 1998, Universal Mobile Telecommunication Systems (UMTS) developed by Europeans.

 In 1999, the 802.11b ,Bluetooth was standardized.

 In 2000, General Packet Radio Service(GPRS) IEEE802.11a was developed.

 In 2001, International Mobile Telecommunications(IMT – d-2000) was standardized

 The year 2007, is the fourth generation the Internet based.

Wireless Communication-Introduction:

Unit 1: Wireless Communicaiton Fundamentals

Wireless Communication-Introduction:

Wireless communication is the transfer of information over a distance without the use of electrical conductors or "wires".The distances involved may be short (a few meters as in television remote control) or very long (thousands or even millions of kilometers for radio communications). When the context is clear the term is often simply shortened to "wireless". Wireless communications is generally considered to be a branch of telecommunications.

Wireless is a term used to describe telecommunications in which electromagnetic waves (rather than some form of wire) carry the signal over part or the entire communication path.

Example:

Cellular phones and pagers: provide connectivity for portable and mobile applications, both personal and business.

Global Positioning System (GPS): allows drivers of cars and trucks, captains of boats and ships, and pilots of aircraft to ascertain their location anywhere on earth.

Snooping TCP

Snooping TCP

• The access point snoops into the traffic and buffers packets for fast re-transmission.
• Transparent extension of TCP within the foreign agent
• Changes of TCP only within the foreign agent
• Buffering of packets sent to the mobile host
• Lost packets on the wireless link (both directions!) will be retransmitted immediately by the mobile host or foreign agent, respectively (so called “local” retransmission)
• 
  

  

  
  The foreign agent therefore “snoops” the packet flow and recognizes acknowledgements in both directions, it also filters ACKs
• Data transfer to the mobile host
• FA buffers data until it receives ACK of the MH, FA detects packet loss via duplicated ACKs or time-out
• Fast retransmission possible, transparent for the fixed network
• Data transfer from the mobile host
• FA detects packet loss on the wireless link via sequence numbers, FA answers directly with a NACK to the MH
• MH can now retransmit data with only a very short delay

Advantages

• End-to-end semantics is preserved.
• Handover is easy. I-TCP requires a careful handover of the system state. Here it falls back to the standard solution if no enhancements.

Problems

• Snooping TCP does not isolate the wireless link as good as I-TCP
• Snooping might be useless depending on encryption schemes
• Data is transmitted twice in case of a paket loss. Once from the FA to the MH and the second time when the ACK finally reaches the CN.
   

Raja Bahadur Venkat Rama Reddy was born on August 22, 1869, in a middle class family at Rayanpet in Wanaparthy. He lost his parents early in his childhood and was brought up by his uncle, William Wahab, who had a great influence on him. He had great passion for education which made him pursue further studies, in spite of opposition from his relatives.

At the age of 18, Venkat Rama Reddy entered the police service of the erstwhile Hyderabad State and rose to the position of Police Commissioner of Hyderabad City, the first Hindu to do so. The Nizam of Hyderabad honored Sri Venkat Rama Reddy with the title of “Raja Bahadur” in recognition of his services to the state.

King George of England conferred the title of “Order of British Empire’ for solving the Indian Labour problem. A statue has been installed in his memory in the city which is a unique feature for a police officer.

A pioneer in the field of education, he took several measures to spread literacy among the people of the Telangana region and to promote Telugu as the medium of instruction. The education of backward area of Telangana Girls, in particular, received powerful impetus from him. It is this pioneering spirit of his, which made him take the first step in establishing a college for women in the early days of 1949. The college is named after him.

It was the Raja Bahadur, who as the president of the managing committee of the Girl’s High School secured a centrally located land for this college building. This first step proved to be giant leap in the field of women’s education for generations to come. The Raja Bahadur Venkat Rama Reddy women’s college stand today as a proud testimony of his foresight and interest in the upliftment and education of women.

The other educational institution established by him or with his help and co-operation includes Madapati Hanumantha Rao Girls High School in the heart of the city to facilitate students from the districts to come Hyderabad to pursue education.