Breadth-first

Also, listed below is pseudocode for a simple queue based level order traversal, and will require space proportional to the maximum number of nodes at a given depth. This can be as much as the total number of nodes / 2. A more space-efficient approach for this type of traversal can be implemented using an iterative deepening depth-first search.

levelorder(root)
  q = empty queue
  q.enqueue(root)
  while not q.empty do
    node := q.dequeue()
    visit(node)
    if node.left ≠ null then
      q.enqueue(node.left)
    if node.right ≠ null then
      q.enqueue(node.right)

Depth-first

Pre-order

preorder(node) if node == null then return visit(node) preorder(node.left) preorder(node.right)

iterativePreorder(node) parentStack = empty stack while (not parentStack.isEmpty() or node ≠ null) if (node ≠ null) visit(node) if (node.right ≠ null) parentStack.push(node.right) node = node.left else node = parentStack.pop()

In-order

inorder(node) if node == null then return inorder(node.left) visit(node) inorder(node.right)

iterativeInorder(node) parentStack = empty stack while (not parentStack.isEmpty() or node ≠ null) if (node ≠ null) parentStack.push(node) node = node.left else node = parentStack.pop() visit(node) node = node.right

Post-order

postorder(node) if node == null then return postorder(node.left) postorder(node.right) visit(node)

iterativePostorder(node) parentStack = empty stack lastnodevisited = null while (not parentStack.isEmpty() or node ≠ null) if (node ≠ null) parentStack.push(node) node = node.left else peeknode = parentStack.peek() if (peeknode.right ≠ null and lastnodevisited ≠ peeknode.right) /* if right child exists AND traversing node from left child, move right */ node = peeknode.right else visit(peeknode) lastnodevisited = parentStack.pop()

The term "backtrack" was coined by American mathematician D. H. Lehmer in the 1950s. Backtracking is a general algorithm for finding all (or some) solutions to some computational problems, notably constraint satisfaction problems, that incrementally builds candidates to the solutions, and abandons each partial candidate c ("backtracks") as soon as it determines that c cannot possibly be completed to a valid solution.
The classic textbook example of the use of backtracking is the eight queens puzzle, that asks for all arrangements of eight chess queens on a standard chessboard so that no queen attacks any other. In the common backtracking approach, the partial candidates are arrangements of k queens in the first k rows of the board, all in different rows and columns. Any partial solution that contains two mutually attacking queens can be abandoned, since it cannot possibly be completed to a valid solution.
Backtracking can be applied only for problems which admit the concept of a "partial candidate solution" and a relatively quick test of whether it can possibly be completed to a valid solution. It is useless, for example, for locating a given value in an unordered table
Backtracking is an important tool for solving constraint satisfaction problems, such as crosswords, verbal arithmetic, Sudoku, and many other puzzles. It is often the most convenient (if not the most efficient technique for parsing, for the knapsack problem and other combinatorial optimization problems. I
Backtracking depends on user-given "black box procedures" that define the problem to be solved, the nature of the partial candidates, and how they are extended into complete candidates.
 The pioneer string-processing language SNOBOL (1962) may have been the first to provide a built-in general backtracking facility.

Sudoku puzzle solved by backtracking.

Bellman–Ford runs in time, where and are the number of vertices and edges respectively.

function BellmanFord(list vertices, list edges, vertex source)
   ::distance[],predecessor[]

   // This implementation takes in a graph, represented as
   // lists of vertices and edges, and fills two arrays
   // (distance and predecessor) with shortest-path
   // (less cost/distance/metric) information

   // Step 1: initialize graph
   for each vertex v in vertices:
       if v is source then distance[v] := 0
       else distance[v] := inf
       predecessor[v] := null

   // Step 2: relax edges repeatedly
   for i from 1 to size(vertices)-1:
       for each edge (u, v) with weight w in edges:
           if distance[u] + w < distance[v]:
               distance[v] := distance[u] + w
               predecessor[v] := u

   // Step 3: check for negative-weight cycles
   for each edge (u, v) with weight w in edges:
       if distance[u] + w < distance[v]:
           error "Graph contains a negative-weight cycle"
   return distance[], predecessor[]

In this example graph, assuming that A is the source and edges are processed in the worst order, from right to left, it requires the full |V|−1 or 4 iterations for the distance estimates to converge. Conversely, if the edges are processed in the best order, from left to right, the algorithm converges in a single iteration.

Bellman–Ford algorithm

Class	Single-source shortest path problem (for weighted directed graphs)
Data structure	Graph
Worst case performance
Worst case space complexity

BFS was invented in the late 1950s by E. F. Moore, who used to find the shortest path out of a maze, and discovered independently by C. Y. Lee as a wire routing algorithm

Breadth-first search

Order in which the nodes are expanded
Class	Search algorithm
Data structure	Graph
Worst case performance
Worst case space complexity

Depth-first

There are three types of depth-first traversal: pre-order, in-order, and post-order For a binary tree, they are defined as display operations recursively at each node, starting with the root node, whose algorithm is as follows:

Pre-order

1. Display the data part of root element (or current element)
2. Traverse the left subtree by recursively calling the pre-order function.
3. Traverse the right subtree by recursively calling the pre-order function.

In-order

1. Traverse the left subtree by recursively calling the in-order function.
2. Display the data part of root element (or current element).
3. Traverse the right subtree by recursively calling the in-order function.

Post-order

1. Traverse the left subtree by recursively calling the post-order function.
2. Traverse the right subtree by recursively calling the post-order function.
3. Display the data part of root element (or current element).

Depth-first search

Order in which the nodes are visited
Class	Search algorithm
Data structure	Graph
Worst case performance	for explicit graphs traversed without repetition, for implicit graphs with branching factor b searched to depth d
Worst case space complexity	if entire graph is traversed without repetition, O(longest path length searched) for implicit graphs without elimination of duplicate nodes

  Binary Search Tree

Pre-order: F, B, A, D, C, E, G, I, H

In-order: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I

Post-order: A, C, E, D, B, H, I, G,F

Level-order: F, B, G, A, D, I, C, E, H

IES , IAS Reference Books for GENERAL STUDIES

SL.NO. SUBJECT AUTHOR 1. Geography Atlas Indian Geography World Geography TTK (New Modern School) or Oxford NCERT Class XII Gohcheng- Leong 2. History Ancient India Medieval India Modern India NCERT NCERT NCERT 3. Polity Constitution of India Subhash Kashyap 4. Life Science NCERT 5. CURRENT AFFAIRS DAILY NEW UPDATE • Regular follow-up Audio visual media. • GENERAL STUDIES by ENGINEERS INSTITUTE OF INDIA • Ebook are available for free download

Biotechnology is one of the world's newest and most important applied sciences of the 21st century. It embraces basic sciences like Physics, Chemistry, Maths as well as engineering technology depending upon its application. Biotechnology is recognized as a discipline where basic and applied sciences work together. It is a research oriented science, a combination of Biology and Technology and covers a wide variety of subjects like Genetics, Biochemistry, Microbiology, Immunology, Virology, Chemistry, Engineering and subjects like Health and Medicine, Agriculture and Animal Husbandry, Cropping system and Crop Management, Ecology, Cell Biology and Bio-statistics etc.  If there is any area of science that will flourish after Information technology, then it is biotechnology. The multi-billion dollar biotechnology industry in a broad sense uses organisms, cells or molecules isolated to make products or processes having large applications benefiting the sectors of health, agriculture, animal resources, aquaculture, energy, forest, environments etc. In nutshell we can say that biotechnology includes manipulation of organisms on the molecular and genetic level to improve health, safety, nutrition and environment.

There is a great scope in this field as the demand for bio-technologists is growing both at home and abroad. Job opportunities extend to Universities, medical colleges and government labs. Careers in biotechnology tend to be related to Research and development, Quality control, Clinical Research, Manufacturing and Production, Patent administration, Management and Administration, Hospital laboratories, Academic Research laboratories, Forensics, Environmental cleanup and Bioinformatics. The industries offer rewarding career for students interested in science and engineering. A well established biotechnology company usually has several products that carry different functions and uses biotechnology in pharmaceuticals, agriculture, chemicals, environmental remediation and energy sector. The biotechnology degree holder can find suitable placements in such establishments.    

Study Material

1. Cell and Molecular Biology

E.D.P . De Robertis and E.M.F. De Robertis Jr.  & Febiger

2. Molecular Cell  Biology

J.Darnell, H.Lodish, & D. Baltimore

Scientific American books,Inc., USA

3. Molecular Biology of the Gene

J.D. Watson, N.H. Hopkins, J.W. Roberts

Benjamin/cummings Publ.co., Inc., California

4. Principles of Gene Manipulations

R.W. Old & S.B. Primrose

Blackwell Science, U.K

5. Genomes

T.A. Brown

John wiley & Sons

6. Principles of Biochemistry

Lehninger

Nelson and Cox

7. Kuby Immunology

RA Goldsby, Thomas J, Kindt

8. Basic Ecology

Eugene P Odum

Saunders College Publishing

9. Evolution

Monroe W. Strickberger

CBS publishers and distributors

10. Text Book of Medical Physiology

Arthur Guyton

W.B Saunders company

11. Cell and Molecular Biology (concepts & experiments)

Gerald Karp

John wiley & Sons

12. Genetics

E.J. Gardner, M.J. Simmons and D.P. Snustad

13. Microbiology

Prescott & Harley, Madigan & Martinko

14. Plant Physiology

Salisbury & Ross

15. Biology

Campbell

16. Physics

Concepts of Physics (Part 1 and 2) by H C. Verma

Text Book of Physics: NCERT XI and XII

17. Chemistry

Organic Chemistry by Morrison and Boyd

Text Book of Chemistry: NCERT XI and XII

Colleges *(Private)

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• Department of Biotechnology, Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh
• Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University, Noida, UP
• Department of Biotechnology, Jaypee Institute of Information Technology Noida, UP
• School of Chemical & Biotechnology, SASTRA University, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu
• Department of Biotechnology, School of Bioengineering, SRM University,Chennai, Tamil Nadu
• Department of Biotechnology & Bioinformatics, Jaypee University of Information Technology Solan, H.P.
• Department of Life Science, Manipal University, Karnataka.
• Department of Biotechnology, Shoolini Institute of Life Sciences and Business Management, Solan, H.P.
• College of Biotechnology & Allied Sciences, Allahabad Agricultural Institute Allahabad, UP
• Department of Biotechnology, The Oxford College of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka
• Department of Biotechnology, R V College of Engineering, Bangalore, Karnataka
• Department of Biotechnology, Shri M. & N Virani Science College, Rajkot, Gujarat
• Department of Biotechnology, PES Institute of Technology, Bangalore, Karnataka
• Department of Biotechnology, Kumaraguru College of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu
• Department of Biotechnology, Bannari Amman Institute of Technology, Sathyamangalam, Tamil Nadu
• Institute of Biotechnology & Allied Sciences, Seedling Academy, Jaipur, Rajasthan
• Department of Biotechnology, Kamraj College of Engineering and Technology, Virudhunagar, Tamil Nadu
• Department of Biotechnology, Arunai Engineering College, Tiruvannamalai, Tamil Nadu
• Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Avinashilingam University for Women, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu
• Department of Biotechnology, Acharya Institute of Sciences, Bangalore, Karnataka
• Department of Life Sciences, Reva Institute of Science & Management, Bangalore, Karnataka